ALT the airwaves buzzed with the transmissions of tens of thousands of amateur operators. The openness of the network felt liberating. The operators' ability to project their voice, or at least their code, across hundreds of miles gave them a feeling of freedom and independence. It inspired a sense of personal agency at a time when industrialization and urbanization were imposing conformity and regimentation. "The amateurs," writes historian Hugh Slotten, "tended to view the spectrum as a new, wide-open frontier, akin to the American West, where men could pursue individual interests free from repressive authoritarian and hierarchical institutions." The amateur operators-adolescent boys, many of them-played a crucial role in the development of radio. They didn't just "adopt the new technology, explains media scholar Susan Douglas; "they built it, experimented with it, modified it, and sought to extend its range and performance. They made radio their own means of expression.