ALT Summary of the volcanically triggered extinction mechanisms inferred from the geochemical, sedimentary and palaeontological record of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction (PTME) and their recorded effects on biota. a | The δ13Ccarbonate record across the Permian–Triassic boundary, highlighting the shift to more negative values during the marine extinction interval. b | The inferred environmental changes during the marine extinction interval. c | The inferred environmental changes during the terrestrial extinction. The initial mainly extrusive–pyroclastic volcanic phase is coeval with the initial terrestrial crisis, whilst the onset of intrusive volcanism is coeval with the marine extinction interval. The different volcanic styles injected greenhouse gases, halogens and metals (only the most relevant volcanic and volcanogenic gases are represented in parts b and c in the end Permian–earliest Triassic atmosphere–land–ocean system. These emissions triggered a cascade of environmental dist